Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Decision-Making - AP Psychology
- Identify the term for a sudden realization of a problem's solution.
- Insight. The 'aha!' moment when solutions suddenly emerge.
- Define functional fixedness in problem-solving.
- Inability to see objects being used in nontraditional ways. Mental rigidity prevents creative tool use.
- Define the term 'illusory correlation'.
- Perceiving a relationship between variables when none exists. Sees patterns in random coincidences.
- What is the confirmation bias?
- Tendency to search for information that confirms beliefs. Ignores contradictory evidence to maintain beliefs.
- What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking?
- Convergent narrows options; divergent generates options. One focuses solutions, the other explores possibilities.
- What is the status quo bias?
- Preference for the current state of affairs. Resistance to change favors current conditions.
- What is a mental set in problem-solving?
- Tendency to approach problems in a familiar way. Rigid thinking patterns block new solutions.
- What is the definition of an algorithm in problem-solving?
- A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem. Guarantees a solution through systematic steps.
- What is the planning fallacy?
- Underestimating the time needed to complete tasks. Optimistic bias affects time estimates.
- Identify the term for overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments.
- Overconfidence. Unjustified certainty in our abilities and knowledge.
- Identify the bias where people judge the probability of events based on how they match prototypes.
- Representativeness heuristic. Stereotypes guide probability judgments.
- What is the term for the bias where recent experiences influence perception of future events?
- Recency bias. Latest information weighs more heavily.
- Identify the cognitive bias where people overestimate their ability to predict outcomes.
- Hindsight bias. The 'I-knew-it-all-along' effect after events occur.
- What is the self-serving bias?
- Attributing successes to oneself and failures to external factors. Protects self-esteem through selective attribution.
- What is a heuristic in the context of decision-making?
- A mental shortcut used to make judgments quickly. Trades accuracy for speed in decision-making.
- Identify the fallacy where people disregard possible outcomes due to recent vivid events.
- Neglect of probability. Vivid events overshadow statistical likelihood.
- What does the term 'framing effect' refer to?
- Decisions influenced by the way information is presented. Context and wording shape our choices.
- Identify the term for the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information.
- Anchoring bias. First impressions disproportionately influence judgment.
- Identify the bias where people prefer avoiding losses over acquiring gains.
- Loss aversion. Losses feel worse than equivalent gains feel good.
- What is the optimism bias?
- Belief that positive outcomes are more likely for oneself. Expects better personal outcomes than reality.
- What is the effect of the 'bandwagon' in decision-making?
- Adopting beliefs because others do. Social proof influences individual choices.
- What is the sunk cost fallacy?
- Continuing an endeavor due to previously invested resources. Past investments justify continued poor decisions.
- What is satisficing in decision-making?
- Choosing an option that meets a minimum requirement. Good enough is often better than perfect.
- What is the ostrich effect in decision-making?
- Ignoring negative information to avoid discomfort. Avoidance of uncomfortable truths.
- What does the term 'cognitive dissonance' refer to?
- Discomfort from holding conflicting cognitions. Mental conflict motivates attitude change.
- What is an example of the spotlight effect?
- Overestimating how much others notice our actions. Assumes we're the center of attention.
- Identify the term for the tendency to attribute others' actions to their character rather than situations.
- Fundamental attribution error. Underestimates situational influences on behavior.
- Which bias involves believing one has more control over outcomes than one actually does?
- Illusion of control. Overestimates personal influence on random events.
- Identify the heuristic that involves making decisions based on the most easily recalled information.
- Availability heuristic. Memory accessibility shapes probability estimates.
- Which heuristic involves solving problems by working backward from the goal?
- Means-end analysis. Reduces gap between current state and goal.
- What is cognitive restructuring?
- Changing maladaptive thoughts to improve problem-solving. Reframes negative thoughts into helpful ones.
- What is meant by 'base rate fallacy'?
- Ignoring statistical information in favor of anecdotal data. Overlooks general statistics for specific cases.
- What is the mere exposure effect?
- Increased preference due to repeated exposure. Familiarity breeds liking through repetition.
- Identify the term for choosing an option with the highest perceived value.
- Maximizing. Seeks the absolute best possible outcome.
- What is the gambler's fallacy?
- Belief that past events affect the likelihood of future events. Assumes random events have patterns or memory.
- Which problem-solving strategy involves breaking a problem into smaller parts?
- Decomposition. Divides complex problems into manageable subproblems.
- What is the term for the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs?
- Confirmation bias. Seeks supporting evidence while avoiding challenges.
- What is the representativeness heuristic?
- Judging likelihood based on similarity to prototypes. Assumes similar-looking things belong together.
- What is counterfactual thinking?
- Imagining alternatives to past events. Considers how things could have been different.
- What is the availability heuristic?
- Estimating likelihood based on readily available examples. Recent memorable events seem more probable.