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The Global System
of Agriculture

Explore how food production systems vary across the world, from subsistence farming to commercial agribusiness, and understand the spatial patterns that shape global food networks.

AP Human Geography

What Is Agriculture?

Agriculture is the deliberate modification of Earth's surface through the cultivation of plants and the rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain. It represents the most fundamental way humans interact with the physical environment.

The First Agricultural Revolution

Around 10,000 years ago, humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to settled farming. This shift, known as the Neolithic Revolution, independently emerged in multiple hearths around the world.

Fertile Crescent East Asia Mesoamerica South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa South America Independent agricultural hearth

Why Agriculture Matters in Human Geography

★ Land Use
Agriculture occupies roughly 37% of Earth's land surface, making it the dominant land use category.
★ Employment
Nearly 1 billion people worldwide work in agriculture, especially in developing countries.
★ Trade
Agricultural commodities form the backbone of global trade networks connecting core and periphery nations.

Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture

The most fundamental division in global agriculture is between subsistence farming (producing food primarily for one's own family) and commercial farming (producing food primarily for sale in the market).

Subsistence Commercial
Purpose Feed family/community Sell for profit
Scale Small plots Large farms
Technology Low: hand tools, animals High: machinery, GMOs
Labor Labor-intensive Capital-intensive
Location LDCs / Global South MDCs / Global North

Von Thunen's Land Use Model

Johann Heinrich von Thunen (1826) created a model explaining the spatial arrangement of agricultural activities around a central market. The model assumes an isolated state with uniform land, a single market, and rational farmers maximizing profit.

MARKET Dairy & Market Gardens Forestry Grain Farming Ranching / Livestock Distance from market

Why Distance Determines Land Use

1
Ring 1: Dairy and market gardens produce perishable goods that spoil quickly and must be near the market.
2
Ring 2: Forestry was placed here because wood was heavy and expensive to transport in the 1800s.
3
Ring 3: Grain farming produces durable, lightweight crops that can travel farther at lower cost.
4
Ring 4: Ranching requires vast land and animals can walk themselves to market.

Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture

Intensive
High input per unit of land. More labor, fertilizer, and capital on smaller plots. Yields are high per acre. Examples: wet rice cultivation, market gardening, dairy.
Extensive
Low input per unit of land. Less labor and capital spread over large areas. Yields are lower per acre but higher per worker. Examples: ranching, shifting cultivation, grain farming.

Types of Subsistence Agriculture

★ Shifting Cultivation
Slash-and-burn: clear a patch, farm it until soil is depleted, then move on. Found in tropical rainforests of South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
★ Pastoral Nomadism
Herding domesticated animals across vast arid landscapes. Common in Central Asia, Sahel region, and the Middle East. Movement follows seasonal pastures.
★ Intensive Subsistence
High labor input on small plots; includes wet rice paddy farming in monsoon Asia. Supports very dense populations on limited land.

Types of Commercial Agriculture

★ Mixed Crop/Livestock
Integrates crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Common in the U.S. Midwest and Western Europe. Crops often feed livestock.
★ Plantation Agriculture
Large-scale, single-crop (monoculture) farms in tropical regions. Products: coffee, sugar, rubber, palm oil. Legacy of colonialism.
★ Commercial Grain
Vast mechanized farms growing wheat, corn, or soybeans for global export. Found in U.S. Great Plains, Canadian prairies, Argentina's pampas.

The Green Revolution

The Green Revolution (1960s-1980s) introduced high-yield seed varieties, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation systems to developing countries. It dramatically increased food production, especially in India and Mexico.

Grain Yield 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Green Revolution begins Pre-revolution Post-revolution

Green Revolution: Benefits and Criticisms

✓ Benefits
Averted famine in South Asia. Increased caloric output. Reduced food prices. Enabled population growth without mass starvation.
✕ Criticisms
Increased inequality (rich farmers benefited most). Environmental damage: soil depletion, water overuse, chemical runoff. Loss of crop biodiversity.

Agribusiness and the Global Food System

Agribusiness refers to the integration of agriculture into the broader industrial economy: large corporations control production, processing, distribution, and retail. This system connects farms in one country to consumers in another through complex commodity chains.

Input Supply Farm Production Processing & Packaging Distribution & Retail Consumer Market The Agribusiness Commodity Chain

How to Analyze Agricultural Patterns

1
Identify the type: Is it subsistence or commercial? Intensive or extensive? What specific agricultural practice is being described?
2
Consider physical factors: What climate, soil, and topographic conditions support this type of agriculture?
3
Examine human factors: What role do labor availability, technology, government policy, and cultural traditions play?
4
Apply a model: Does von Thunen's model or the core-periphery model help explain the spatial pattern?
5
Assess impacts: What are the environmental, economic, and social consequences of this agricultural system?

Example: Identifying Agricultural Types

1
Type: Subsistence (primarily feeds family, not grown for market profit).
2
Scale: Intensive (high labor input on a small plot of land).
3
Specific practice: Intensive subsistence with wet rice dominant: characterized by paddy fields, monsoon climate dependence, and manual labor.

Example: Applying Von Thunen

1
Dairy and vegetables are perishable: they must be close to the market to arrive fresh.
2
Wheat is durable and lightweight: it can be transported long distances cheaply.
3
Ranching requires vast open land, which is cheapest far from the city. Animals can walk to market.

Common Mistakes

✕ Confusing intensive/extensive with subsistence/commercial
These are separate dimensions. Intensive subsistence (wet rice) and intensive commercial (dairy) both exist. Don't assume intensive = commercial.
✕ Treating von Thunen as literal
It's a model, not a description of reality. Refrigerated transport, rivers, and roads modify the concentric rings. The AP exam tests your ability to apply and critique it.
✕ Ignoring the role of colonialism
Plantation agriculture in the Global South reflects colonial legacies, not just market forces. The exam expects you to connect agriculture to historical power structures.

Summary: Agricultural Systems at a Glance

System Intensity Region Key Feature
Shifting Cultivation Extensive Tropics Slash-and-burn
Pastoral Nomadism Extensive Arid regions Herding, migration
Wet Rice / Paddy Intensive Monsoon Asia Flooded fields
Plantation Intensive Tropical LDCs Monoculture, export
Mixed Crop/Livestock Intensive MDCs Crop-livestock integration
Commercial Grain Extensive Midlatitude MDCs Mechanized, export
Ranching Extensive Semiarid MDCs Vast grazing land

Question 1 of 5

Which of the following best describes intensive subsistence agriculture?

Question 2 of 5

In von Thunen's model, dairy farming is located closest to the market primarily because:

Question 3 of 5

A major criticism of the Green Revolution is that it:

Question 4 of 5

Plantation agriculture in tropical developing countries is most directly linked to which historical process?

Question 5 of 5

Which of the following is the best example of extensive commercial agriculture?