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Causes of
Migration

Explore the push and pull factors that drive human movement across regions, including economic, political, environmental, and social forces.

AP Human Geography

What is Migration?

Migration is the permanent or semi-permanent relocation of a person or group from one place to another. It differs from simple movement: migration involves a change of residence across a significant distance and is driven by identifiable causes.

Push and Pull Factors

Origin Push Factors Poverty, Conflict, Disaster Destination Pull Factors Jobs, Safety, Education Migration Flow Intervening Obstacles

Categories of Migration Factors

Economic
Job availability, wages, cost of living, poverty, or economic collapse
Political
War, persecution, government instability, lack of civil rights
Environmental
Natural disasters, climate change, droughts, sea-level rise
Social/Cultural
Family reunification, education, religious freedom, quality of life

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

In the 1880s, Ernst Georg Ravenstein analyzed census data to identify generalizations about migration patterns. These "laws" remain foundational in AP Human Geography:

1
Most migrants move short distances. Long-distance migrants tend to head for major economic centers.
2
Migration occurs in steps: rural → small town → city → large city.
3
Every migration stream produces a counter-stream.
4
Economic factors are the primary cause of most voluntary migration.

Lee's Migration Model

Origin + − 0 − Destination + + − 0 Intervening Obstacles + = positive (pull) − = negative (push) 0 = neutral Every place has a mix of +, −, and 0 factors

Voluntary vs. Forced Migration

Voluntary Forced
Definition Migrant chooses to move Migrant has no choice
Primary Cause Economic opportunity Conflict or persecution
Example Mexican workers → U.S. Syrian refugees → Europe
Legal Status Immigrant / visa holder Refugee / asylum seeker
Return Likelihood Higher Lower (unsafe to return)

Internal vs. International Migration

Internal Migration
Movement within a country's borders: rural-to-urban, interregional, or intraregional. Example: Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities (1910s-1970s).
International Migration
Movement across country borders. Includes emigration (leaving) and immigration (arriving). Example: Indian IT workers migrating to the United States for employment.

How to Analyze Migration Causes

1
Identify the migration flow. Who is moving, from where, and to where?
2
Classify push factors at the origin. Is there war, poverty, environmental disaster, or discrimination?
3
Classify pull factors at the destination. Are there jobs, safety, education, or family connections?
4
Consider intervening obstacles. Do distance, borders, cost, or immigration laws limit movement?
5
Determine type. Is this voluntary or forced? Internal or international? Temporary or permanent?

Example: Syrian Refugee Crisis

Syria Civil war Persecution Infrastructure destruction Turkey 3.6 million refugees Germany 800,000+ refugees Jordan / Lebanon 2+ million refugees Type: Forced International

Example: Rural-to-Urban in China

Rural Villages Low wages Limited services Agricultural decline Few opportunities 300+ million since 1980s Coastal Cities Factory jobs Higher wages Education access Modern services Type: Voluntary, Internal (Intraregional)

Example: Climate Migration

Climate Migration Sea-Level Rise Pacific Islands Drought Sub-Saharan Africa Extreme Storms Caribbean, SE Asia Desertification Sahel Region Environmental push factors are increasingly central to global migration

Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities

Obstacles
Physical barriers (oceans, deserts), political barriers (visas, walls), financial cost, language barriers, family ties to origin
Opportunities
A migrant may stop short of the intended destination if a closer place offers sufficient benefits: a job, a welcoming community, or lower cost of living

The Gravity Model and Migration

The gravity model predicts that interaction between two places increases with population size and decreases with distance. Applied to migration:

Larger populations
More potential migrants at origin, more opportunities at destination
Greater distance
Higher cost, more intervening obstacles, reduced information about destination

Common Mistakes

✕ Confusing Refugee and Immigrant
A refugee is forced to flee (persecution, war). An immigrant voluntarily moves for opportunity. The AP exam tests this distinction specifically.
✕ Ignoring Intervening Obstacles
Students often list only push/pull factors. Always consider what barriers exist between origin and destination: borders, cost, legal restrictions.
✕ Treating All Migration as International
Most migration globally is internal (within countries). Rural-to-urban migration is the largest migration flow worldwide. Don't overlook it.

Migration Causes: Summary

Factor Type Push Example Pull Example
Economic Unemployment, poverty Higher wages, job growth
Political War, persecution, corruption Political freedom, asylum
Environmental Drought, flooding, disasters Favorable climate, resources
Social/Cultural Discrimination, limited education Family, religious freedom
Demographic Overpopulation, high dependency Labor shortages, aging population

Question 1 of 5

A family flees Syria due to civil war and settles in Germany. Which best describes this migration?

Question 2 of 5

According to Ravenstein's laws, what is the primary cause of most voluntary migration?

Question 3 of 5

A worker from rural Mexico settles in El Paso, Texas instead of continuing to Chicago because El Paso offers factory work. This is best explained by:

Question 4 of 5

Which of the following is an example of internal migration?

Question 5 of 5

People displaced by rising sea levels in Pacific Island nations are often not classified as refugees under international law. Why?