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Second Wave
Industrialization

Explore the technological breakthroughs, economic transformations, and social upheavals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that reshaped European society.

AP European History

What Was the Second Industrial Revolution?

The Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870-1914) was a period of rapid industrial growth driven by new technologies, energy sources, and organizational methods. Unlike the first wave, which centered on textiles and steam, this era introduced steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum as the engines of economic transformation.

Key Industries and Innovations

Steel
The Bessemer process (1856) made mass steel production affordable, fueling railroads, bridges, and skyscrapers.
Chemicals
Synthetic dyes, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals transformed agriculture and daily life, especially in Germany.
Electricity
Edison's light bulb (1879) and Tesla's AC motor electrified factories, homes, and cities across Europe.
Petroleum
The internal combustion engine created the automobile industry and reshaped transportation and warfare.

The Geographic Spread of Industry

While Britain led the first wave, the second wave saw Germany, the United States, France, and Belgium emerge as industrial powerhouses. Germany's chemical and electrical industries surpassed Britain by 1900, while the U.S. led in steel production.

World Manufacturing Output Share c. 1900 % of World Output 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 0% 24% USA 19% Britain 13% Germany 9% Russia 7% France

Timeline of Key Developments

1856
Bessemer Process
Cheap mass production of steel revolutionizes construction and manufacturing
1876
Otto's Four-Stroke Engine
Nikolaus Otto patents the internal combustion engine, laying the foundation for automobiles
1879
Edison's Light Bulb
Practical incandescent lighting sparks electrification of cities and factories
1886
Benz's Automobile
Karl Benz patents the first true automobile, powered by a gasoline engine
1895
Marconi's Radio
Wireless telegraphy transforms global communication and naval operations
1903
Wright Brothers' Flight
Powered flight opens new frontiers in transportation and future military strategy

New Business Structures

The Second Industrial Revolution required massive capital investment, leading to new forms of business organization that concentrated economic power in unprecedented ways.

Corporations
Joint-stock companies allowed pooling of investment from many shareholders, limiting individual risk while enabling large-scale enterprise.
Cartels
Groups of firms agreed to fix prices or divide markets. Especially common in Germany's chemical and steel industries.
Trusts
One company controlled entire sectors through mergers and acquisitions, creating monopolistic power. Krupp in Germany, Nobel in Sweden.

Urbanization and Social Change

European Urban Population Growth 10% 25% 40% 55% 70% 1800 1830 1860 1890 1914 Britain Germany France Second Wave (1870-1914)

First Wave vs. Second Wave

First Wave (1760-1840) Second Wave (1870-1914)
Energy Coal, steam Electricity, petroleum
Key Materials Iron, cotton Steel, chemicals
Transport Canals, early railways Automobiles, steamships
Leading Nation Britain Germany, USA
Business Scale Family firms, partnerships Corporations, cartels, trusts
Labor Artisans displaced, child labor Mass unions, socialist parties
Science Role Practical tinkering Applied research, R&D labs

The Working Class Response

Rapid industrialization produced both wealth and misery. Workers responded through collective action, fundamentally reshaping European politics.

1
Trade Unions: Workers organized by craft and later by industry. Britain's Trade Union Congress (1868) and Germany's Free Trade Unions grew into mass organizations.
2
Socialist Parties: The German SPD (1875) became the largest socialist party in Europe, advocating for workers' rights through parliamentary politics.
3
Strikes and Direct Action: Massive strikes in the 1880s-1890s paralyzed key industries and forced governments to consider labor legislation.
4
State Welfare: Bismarck's social insurance laws (1883-1889) in Germany pioneered health, accident, and old-age insurance: partly to undercut socialist appeal.

How to Analyze Industrialization on the AP Exam

1
Identify the Technology: What new invention, process, or energy source is being discussed? Connect it to a specific industry.
2
Link to Economic Change: How did this technology change production methods, business structures, or trade patterns?
3
Trace Social Impact: Who benefited? Who suffered? Look for urbanization, class formation, gender roles, and migration.
4
Connect to Political Responses: How did governments, labor movements, or ideologies respond? Think socialism, welfare state, imperialism.
5
Compare Across Nations: Different countries industrialized at different rates with different consequences. Always note national variation.

Example: The Bessemer Process

Bessemer Process Cheap Mass Steel Railroad Boom Steel rails replaced iron Urban Construction Bridges, skyscrapers Military Arms Race Warships, artillery Accelerated Imperialism & Geopolitical Rivalry

Example: Germany's Industrial Rise

After unification in 1871, Germany industrialized with stunning speed. Several factors combined to drive this transformation.

1
Political Unification: The creation of a single German state eliminated internal tariffs (the Zollverein had prepared the way), creating a vast internal market.
2
Education System: Germany's technical universities and research institutions linked science directly to industrial application, pioneering R&D laboratories.
3
Banking System: German investment banks (like Deutsche Bank) provided long-term capital to heavy industry, unlike Britain's more cautious financial sector.
4
State Support: The government actively promoted industrialization through tariffs, railroad subsidies, and military contracts.

Example: Women in the Industrial Economy

The Second Industrial Revolution transformed women's economic roles, though it also reinforced gender hierarchies in new ways.

Factory Work
Women entered textile mills, food processing, and later electrical assembly. They earned significantly less than men for similar work.
White-Collar Jobs
Typewriters and telephones created new office positions. By 1900, secretarial work was becoming a "female" occupation across Europe.
Domestic Ideology
Middle-class norms idealized women as homemakers. The "separate spheres" ideology intensified even as more women worked outside the home.

Industrialization and Imperialism

Industrial Economy Colonies (e.g., Africa, Asia) Military Power (Steel Ships, Rifles) Sell Manufactured Goods Extract Raw Materials Provides Advanced Weapons Enables Conquest & Control The Reinforcing Cycle of Imperialism The "New Imperialism" (1870-1914) was inseparable from industrial capitalism

Common Mistakes on AP Essays

✕ Treating Both Waves as One
Students often lump the First and Second Industrial Revolutions together. They had different technologies, leaders, and social consequences. Always specify which wave you mean.
✕ Ignoring National Variation
Industrialization looked very different in Britain, Germany, France, and Russia. Generalizing about "Europe" without national examples loses points.
✕ Only Discussing Economics
The strongest AP essays connect economic changes to social, political, and cultural effects. Always discuss at least two dimensions of change.

Summary: Effects of the Second Wave

Dimension Key Changes Examples
Economic Corporate capitalism, global trade networks Krupp, Thyssen, Deutsche Bank
Social Mass urbanization, new middle class, labor movements SPD, British TUC, suffragettes
Technological Electricity, internal combustion, telecommunications Edison, Benz, Marconi
Political Welfare state, socialist parties, imperial competition Bismarck's social laws, Scramble for Africa
Cultural Consumerism, mass media, education reform Department stores, penny press, universal schooling

Question 1 of 5

Which of the following best distinguishes the Second Industrial Revolution from the First?

Question 2 of 5

Based on this passage, which factor does the speaker identify as most critical to Germany's industrial success?

Question 3 of 5

Bismarck's social insurance legislation of the 1880s was primarily intended to:

Question 4 of 5

The relationship between the Second Industrial Revolution and the "New Imperialism" is best described as:

Question 5 of 5

Which of the following is most accurate about the impact of the Second Industrial Revolution on European women?