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Continuity and Change
in Modern Times

Explore the forces of persistence and transformation that defined Europe across the 20th and 21st centuries: from world wars to integration, from empires to democracies.

AP European History

What Are Continuity and Change?

Continuity refers to elements of society, politics, culture, or economics that persist over time despite disruptions. Change refers to transformations: new institutions, ideas, technologies, or power structures that replace or alter the old order.

Continuity
Patterns, traditions, and structures that endure: nationalism, class hierarchies, religious influence, state sovereignty
Change
Ruptures and innovations: revolutions, democratization, decolonization, technological leaps, supranational governance

Why This Skill Matters

The AP European History exam tests your ability to analyze patterns across time. Continuity-and-change questions appear in multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay formats. Mastering this skill means you can:

1
Identify what persisted through a major turning point and explain why it survived.
2
Identify what transformed and trace the causes and consequences of that transformation.
3
Evaluate the degree of change: was it revolutionary or incremental? Surface-level or structural?

The Analytical Lens

Think of continuity and change as two parallel tracks running through any historical period. Your job is to identify elements on each track, then weigh their relative significance.

Continuity Change TIME 1914 1945 1989 2000s Nationalism State Power Total War EU Integration Globalization

Categories of Analysis

When identifying continuity and change, sort your evidence into these four domains. The AP exam expects you to address multiple categories in your essays.

Political
Forms of government, voting rights, constitutions, sovereignty, international alliances
Economic
Capitalism vs. socialism, trade, industrialization, welfare states, monetary systems
Social
Class structures, gender roles, migration, urbanization, education, public health
Cultural
Religion, art, intellectual movements, media, national identity, secularization

Reform vs. Revolution

Not all change is equal. Distinguishing the pace and scope of change is critical for earning high marks on the AP exam.

Reform Revolution
Pace Gradual, incremental Sudden, rapid
Scope Targeted: specific laws or policies Systemic: entire political/economic order
Examples Welfare state expansion (1940s-60s) Russian Revolution (1917)
Continuity? High: old structures adapt Low: old structures destroyed
Risk Too slow, fails to address root causes Instability, violence, unintended outcomes

How to Apply the Skill

Use this step-by-step checklist whenever you encounter a continuity-and-change question on the AP exam:

1
Define the time frame. What is the starting point? What is the endpoint? Anchor your analysis in specific dates.
2
Identify a turning point. What event or process marks the transition? (e.g., 1914, 1945, 1989)
3
List what changed across political, economic, social, and cultural categories. Use specific evidence.
4
List what stayed the same. What survived the turning point? Why did it persist?
5
Evaluate significance. Was there more continuity or more change? Which had the greater impact on European society?

Example 1: World War I as Turning Point

Question: To what extent did World War I represent a break from the pre-war European order?

Changes
Collapse of four empires (Ottoman, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, German). Rise of new nation-states. Women entered the workforce en masse. Total war and mass conscription.
Continuities
Nationalism remained the dominant ideology. Class hierarchies endured. Colonial empires persisted. Militarism and alliance systems continued to shape foreign policy.

Key Turning Points

1914
World War I Begins
End of the Concert of Europe; total war reshapes states and societies
1917
Russian Revolution
Communism challenges liberal capitalism; ideological Cold War foreshadowed
1945
End of World War II
Europe divided; welfare states emerge; decolonization begins
1957
Treaty of Rome
European Economic Community founded; integration begins to replace rivalry
1989
Fall of the Berlin Wall
End of the Cold War; liberal democracy appears triumphant
1993
Maastricht Treaty
European Union created; sovereignty pooled across nations

Example 2: Post-1945 Transformation

Question: Analyze the extent of change in European political systems from 1945 to 1989.

Western Europe Changes: • Liberal democracies established • NATO alliance (1949) • Welfare states expanded • European integration Continuities: • Capitalism preserved • Class structures endured • National identities strong Eastern Europe Changes: • Communist regimes imposed • Warsaw Pact (1955) • Collectivized economies • One-party states Continuities: • Authoritarian governance • Centralized state control • Ethnic tensions persisted Iron Curtain

Example 3: After 1989

Question: To what extent did the fall of communism in 1989 mark a decisive break in European history?

1
Time frame: 1989 (fall of the Berlin Wall) to the 2000s
2
Turning point: Collapse of Soviet bloc: democratic revolutions across Eastern Europe
3
Changes: End of bipolarity, EU expansion eastward (2004), transition to market economies, German reunification
4
Continuities: Nationalism resurged (Yugoslavia wars), economic inequality persisted, Russia maintained authoritarian tendencies, skepticism toward supranational authority
5
Evaluation: Politically transformative, but deep social and economic continuities limited the "end of history" narrative

Threads of Continuity

Despite dramatic upheavals, certain forces persisted throughout the entire 20th and into the 21st century:

Nationalism
From 1914 rivalries to 1990s Balkan Wars to 2010s Brexit: national identity remained the dominant political force
State Power
Regardless of ideology (liberal, fascist, communist), the centralized state expanded its reach into daily life
Social Hierarchy
Economic inequality persisted despite revolutions. New elites replaced old ones; class tensions endured

Forces of Change

Several transformative processes reshaped Europe's trajectory across the modern era:

Total War
WWI and WWII mobilized entire societies, destroyed empires, and redrew maps
European Integration
From the ECSC (1951) to the EU (1993): unprecedented pooling of sovereignty
Decolonization
European empires dissolved (1945-1975), reshaping both colonial and metropolitan societies
Technology
From radio to internet: mass communication transformed culture, politics, and economics

The 21st Century: New Tensions

The post-Cold War consensus faced new challenges that revealed ongoing continuities:

1
2008 Financial Crisis: Exposed persistent economic inequality and weaknesses in EU governance. Austerity policies recalled interwar fiscal orthodoxy.
2
Migration Crisis (2015): Tested European solidarity. Nationalist backlash echoed early-20th-century nativism.
3
Brexit (2016): The UK's departure challenged the narrative of ever-closer union. Sovereignty debates persisted.
4
Democratic Backsliding: Hungary and Poland demonstrated that authoritarian tendencies did not vanish with communism.

Common Mistakes

✕ Only Listing Changes
Students often describe what changed without identifying what stayed the same. You must address both to earn full marks.
✕ Vague Generalizations
Saying "everything changed after WWI" lacks specificity. Use concrete evidence: names, dates, laws, institutions.
✕ Ignoring Degree
Failing to evaluate how much changed. Was it surface-level (new leaders) or structural (new systems of governance)?

Summary: Century at a Glance

Period Major Changes Key Continuities
1914-1918 Empires collapse, total war, new states Nationalism, militarism, colonial empires
1918-1939 Fascism rises, democracy fragile Class conflict, economic instability
1945-1989 Cold War division, welfare states, decolonization State power grows, national identity, inequality
1989-2000s EU expands, communism falls, globalization Nationalism resurges, authoritarianism persists
2000s-present Digital revolution, migration, Brexit Sovereignty debates, economic inequality

Question 1 of 5

Which of the following best illustrates continuity in European history from 1914 to 1945?

Question 2 of 5

Which statement best describes the point of disagreement between the two historians?

Question 3 of 5

The development of the European Union is best understood as an example of which historical process?

Question 4 of 5

A student writing an essay argues: "After 1945, Europe completely abandoned militarism." Which evidence would most effectively challenge this claim?

Question 5 of 5

Which of the following best explains why Brexit (2016) is significant for understanding continuity and change in European history?